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Table 1 Resurgence events identified by the systematic literature review and their suggested causes

From: Malaria resurgence: a systematic review and assessment of its causes

   

Weakening of control activities

Technical problems

Increasing malaria potential

Place

Start

End

Funding or resource constraints

War, disaster, or strife

Purposeful cessation

Administrative problems, complacency, or poor execution

Community non-cooperation

Unknown or unspecified

Vector resistance

Drug resistance

Human or mosquito movement

Development/ industry changes

Socioeconomic weakening

Climate/ weather

War, disaster, or strife

Europe and Middle East

            

Spain

1936

1943

 

[47]

      

[47]

[47]

[47]

 

[47]

Italy

1941

1945

 

[5]

          

[5]

Russia

1960

?

      

[52]

 

[52]

[52]

   

Azerbaijan

1969

1981

   

[89]

         

Afghanistan

1970

1987

 

[26][60]

 

[26]

  

[26]

 

[26]

    

Turkey

1973

1977

[74]

  

[74]

         

Tajikistan

1990

1997

 

[90][29]

           

Azerbaijan

1990

1996

[28][89]

[28][89]

      

[28][89]

 

[28][89]

  

Turkey

1990

1994

        

[91]

[91]

   

Iran

1991

1999

        

[92]

[92]

[92]

 

[92]

Armenia

1994

1998

[93]

[94]

        

[94]

 

[93]

Africa

               

Liberia (Monrovia)

1948

1951

[22]*

       

[22]*

[22]*

   

Kenya (highlands)

1956

1961

[19]*

  

[19]*

[19]*

        

Kenya (Pare-Taveta)

1959

1962

  

[95]*[96]*[32]*

          

Cameroon (Yaounde)

1960

1963

  

[33]*[34]

   

[34]

      

Liberia

1961

?

[22]*

 

[22]*

          

Zanzibar

1967

1983

  

[37][97][9]

          

Swaziland

1971

1996

[53][21]

  

[53][21]

    

[53]*[21]

[53]*

 

[21]

 

Zambia

1976

2000

[98]

    

[99]

       

Nigeria (Garki)

1974

1975

  

[35]*

          

São Tomé and Príncipe

1973

1976

 

[100]

           

Mauritius

1975

1982

   

[27]

    

[27]

[27]

 

[27]

 

Madagascar (highlands)

1976

1988

[40]

 

[40]

[40]

         

Kenya (Kisumu)

1977

?

[42]

   

[42]

[101]

       

Ethiopia (Debre Zeit)

1980

1991

[25]*

 

[25]*

     

[25]*

  

[25]*

 

Mayotte

1981

1984

     

[102]

     

[102]

 

Sudan (Khartoum)

1981

1993

     

[51]

 

[103]

[51][104]

  

[104]

[104]

São Tomé and Príncipe

1985

2003

[43]

  

[100][43]

[43]

 

[43]

      

Zanzibar

1989

1997

[23]*

  

[23]*

         

Kenya (highlands)

1990

1998

       

[105][62][63]*

 

[105]

 

[55]*

 

Sudan (Gezira)

1990

1994

[5]

            

Uganda (highlands)

1990

1994

        

[106]

[106]

   

Zimbabwe

1995

2007

[107]

      

[108]

     

South Africa

1995

2000

  

[97]

   

[97]

[109][61]*

 

[109]

   

Asia

               

China

1960

1970

 

[31]

         

[31]

 

Sri Lanka

1964

1969

[26]

 

[20][26]

[26]

     

[26]

   

India

1965

1976

[110][26][18]*

[110][18]

 

[18]*[110]

[18]

 

[111]

 

[18]

[111, 112]

   

Pakistan

1967

1972

[26]

  

[26]

  

[81]

      

Myanmar

1968

2008

[20]

  

[20]

  

[20]

[20]

[20]

    

Thailand

1970

1981

[20]

  

[20]

[20]

 

[20]

[20]

[20]

    

Nepal

1971

1986

[20]

  

[20]

 

[20]

  

[20]

[20]

   

Bangladesh

1971

1994

[20]

[48]*[113]

 

[48]*[20]

  

[20]

[20]

[48]*[113]

[48]*

[48]*

 

[48]*

Bhutan

1972

1994

  

[20]

[20]

    

[20]

    

Vietnam

1979

1991

[49]*

  

[49]*

   

[49]

[49]

  

[49]

 

Pakistan

1980

1992

       

[64]*

[114]*

[114]

 

[58]*

[114]*

Sri Lanka

1982

1987

   

[50]

   

[50]

[50]

[50]

 

[50]

 

India (Bombay)

1992

1997

   

[115]

     

[116]

   

Republic of Korea

1993

2000

        

[46]*

    

China (Central)

1995

2000

[117]

 

[118]

          

Americas

               

Nicaragua

1960

1968

[26]

     

[26]

 

[119]

    

Paraguay

1961

1967

[120]

            

Bolivia

1965

1979

[121][122]

  

[122]

         

Belize

1971

1983

[123]

       

[45][123]

    

Brazil

1974

1992

[123][44]

       

[124][44]

[44]

   

French Guiana

1975

1990

   

[54]

[41][54]

  

[54]

[125][41][54]

   

[41][54]

Haiti

1976

1982

[123]

            

Guatemala

1976

1998

 

[123]

    

[45][123]

      

Colombia

1976

1998

 

[126]

 

[75]

         

Dominican Republic

1978

1982

[123]

       

[123]

    

Mexico

1979

1985

[127][128]

 

[128]

[127]

         

Ecuador

1980

1990

[123]

 

[75]*

[127]

         

Peru

1981

1998

  

[75]

    

[129]

[129]

    

Guyana

1983

1991

  

[75]

[130]

    

[130]

    

Nicaragua

1983

1996

[131]

[26][131]

 

[131]*

     

[131]

  

[131]

Costa Rica

1990

1998

[54]

 

[54]

[54]

    

[5][54]

[5][54]

   

Belize

1991

1994

  

[132]*[133]

          

Suriname

1992

2001

 

[134]

       

[134]

   

Ecuador

1996

2002

[135]

[135]

 

[135]

       

[135]

 

Panama

2001

2004

   

[136]

 

[137]

  

[137]

    

Pacific

               

Indonesia

1963

1973

[26]

[26]

    

[26]

[26]

     

Malaysia (Sabah)

1967

1978

   

[26]

[26]

 

[26]

[26]

[26]

    

Solomon Islands

1976

1992

   

[26]

 

[26]

[26][138]

 

[26]

    

Papua New Guinea

1980

1990

     

[139]

       

Indonesia

1997

2000

[140]*[141]*

  

[140]*

         

Vanuatu

1999

2003

[142]

  

[142]

         
  1. *Indicates in-depth quantitative or qualitative analysis of evidence for suggested causes.