Fig. 3

Meta-analysis of the association between modern housing and malaria infection. Pooled effects from random-effects meta-analyses for crude (1°1°1) and adjusted (1°1°2) results are shown. Studies are divided into sub-groups by study design. Error bars show 95 % CIs; df = degrees of freedom. 1. Al-Makhlafi 2011 YEM: Good vs poor house quality; 2. Barber 1935 GRC: Modern (tiled roof, ceiling) vs traditional (thatched roof, reed or no ceiling); 3. Butraporn 1935 THA: Permanent vs semi-permanent or temporary; 4. Dahesh 2009 EGY: Painted brick walls and cement ceilings vs mud walls and wood or mud ceilings; 5. de Alemida 2010 TLS: Complete vs incomplete house; 6. Osterbauer 2012 UGA: Modern (iron roof, burnt brick or cement walls and cement floor) vs traditional; 7. van der Hoek 2003 LKA: Modern (brick walls and permanent roof material) vs traditional (mud walls or thatched roof); 8. Wolff 2001 MWI: Modern vs traditional; 9. Woyessa 2013 ETH: Good vs dilapidated house, 10. de Beaudrap 2001 UGA: Brick walls and iron roof vs mud walls and thatched roof (OR adjusted for age, weight, socio-economic status, education, altitude, ITNs), 11. Osterbauer 2012 UGA: Modern (iron roof, burnt brick or cement walls and cement floor) vs traditional (OR adjusted for age, HIV-exposure, enrolment period, gender, mother's age, prophylaxis); 12. van der Hoek 2003 LKA: Modern (brick walls and permanent roof material) vs traditional (mud walls or thatched roof) (OR adjusted for age, gender, distance to stream, distance to cattle shed, coil use, ITNs, IRS); 13. Wanzirah 2015 UGA: Modern (cement, wood or metal wall; tiled or metal roof and closed eaves) vs traditional (OR adjusted for age, gender, study site, household wealth); 14. Wolff 2001 MWI: Modern vs traditional (OR adjusted for water source, occupation, education, malaria knowledge, waste disposal method)