Fig. 1

Spatial and temporal setup of the model. a Spatial setting in the simulations. Simulations were conducted under a 1000 m × 1500 m domain with 10 m × 10 m grids. A 20 m-width pool appears at the center of the domain. Houses are located X_dist away from the pool, and Y_dist away from each other. b Temporal setting: hypothetical condition. The hypothetical condition used in this study defines a clear wet and dry season in a year. During a wet season (T_wet), pools are created at every storm inter-arrival time (T_int), and persist for T_on days. Simulations were conducted for 4 years repeating the specified hypothetical hydrological conditions. c Temporal setting: hydrologically- saturated condition. The hydrologically saturated condition defines the condition where T_wet = ∞ and T_on/T_int = 1. The persistent pool is assumed to be created at time zero. Under this condition, the time required to reach \({\hat{\text{R}}}_{\text{o}} = 1\) is defined as T_o