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Table 2 Variables included as malaria risk factors in 51 micro-epidemiological studies included in the systematic review

From: Defining micro-epidemiology for malaria elimination: systematic review and meta-analysis

Variables included as risk factors for malaria in 51 studies

Studies including this variable

Significant association reported

Demographic factors

Age

[4, 6, 7, 15, 16, 2022, 2429, 37, 42, 44, 45, 47, 49, 50, 52, 53, 5567]

[4, 6, 7, 15, 16, 2022, 2527, 29, 37, 42, 45, 52, 53, 5557, 6367]

Gender

[4, 6, 7, 15, 1922, 2426, 28, 29, 37, 42, 44, 45, 50, 52, 53, 56, 57, 5964, 66, 67]

[7, 20, 42, 45, 64]

Ethnicity

[4, 7, 19, 29, 38]

[4, 19, 29, 38]

Income/wealth status

[2, 6, 16, 19, 22, 2426, 28, 37, 44, 50, 56, 6163, 66, 67]

[2, 19, 22, 26, 37, 56]

Occupation

[7, 19, 24, 29, 45, 62]

[19, 45]

Educational level

[6, 7, 19, 22, 2426, 29, 52, 60, 62]

[6, 19, 22]

Migrant status

[24, 38, 42, 59]

[38, 42]

Citizenship status

[59]

[59]

Marital status

[60]

 

Social factors

Number of sleeping rooms in house

[50, 67]

[50]

Number of occupants per sleeping room

[2, 60, 68]

 

Household dependency ratio

[59, 60]

[60]

Presence of household guests

[60]

 

Individual bed net ownership/use

[2, 4, 6, 7, 19, 20, 22, 2426, 28, 29, 37, 44, 53, 56, 60, 61, 6668]

[2, 5, 6, 19, 25, 28, 56, 61, 66, 67]

Household bed net ownership/use

[2, 5, 7, 25, 29, 52, 57, 6062, 64]

[7, 25, 52, 60, 64]

Use of coils, repellent, fumigants to deter vectors

[2, 44, 66, 68]

[66]

Recent travel away from primary residence

[20, 22, 24, 53, 60, 68]

[20, 53, 60]

Outdoor occupation

[24, 38, 45, 60, 63]

[24, 45, 63]

Household member in outdoor occupation

[24, 60, 62]

[24, 60]

Evening outdoor activities

[26, 38, 68]

[26]

Dawn activities

[38]

 

Water contact behaviours (e.g. fishing, bathing)

[24, 26]

[24]

Environmental factors

Housing construction quality

[6, 24, 28, 38, 48, 51, 57, 61, 66]

[6, 48, 51]

House roofing material

[2, 44, 47, 49, 50, 63, 64, 68]

[2, 47, 50, 68]

House wall material

[2, 24, 47, 52, 62, 64, 67, 68]

[2, 52, 64, 68]

House floor material

[5, 7, 25, 29, 56, 62]

[7, 25, 56]

Presence/type of eaves

[2, 5, 44, 50, 67]

[5, 50]

Presence/type of windows

[2, 5, 19, 24, 50, 56, 60, 67]

[5, 19, 50]

Separate kitchen

[24, 50]

[50]

House size (spatial area)

[67]

 

Household water source

[28, 50, 62, 64]

[62]

House treated with indoor residual spraying

[6, 20, 64]

 

Household Solid and liquid waste disposal

[24, 25, 60, 62]

 

Household surroundings (garden, litter, tidiness)

[20, 60, 64]

[60]

Proximity to vector breeding site

[2, 46, 15, 17, 37, 41, 54, 57, 60, 68]

[5, 6, 15, 17, 37, 41, 54, 55, 57, 60, 68]

Proximity to water body (e.g. pond, lake, swamp, stream)

[22, 26, 28, 41, 46, 47, 51, 52, 65, 66, 68]

[28, 46, 47, 51, 65, 66]

Proximity to man-made water storage and management (well, drain, piped water, brickworks)

[4, 22, 46, 47, 49, 57, 62]

[22, 46, 49, 62]

Proximity to forest

[19, 21, 41, 44, 47, 48, 51]

[19, 21, 41, 47]

Local forest density

[7, 29]

[7, 29]

Proximity to agriculture (e.g. rice irrigation, tea plantation)

[4, 14, 25, 44, 50, 61]

[4, 25, 50, 61]

Vector breeding site density

[2, 15, 17, 23, 54]

[2]

Direction of nearest vector breeding site

[54]

[54]

Number of households on path to breeding site

[37, 54]

[37]

Adult vector density

[5, 23, 48]

 

Exposure to infectious biting mosquitoes

[2]

[2]

Domestic animals kept in/near house

[2, 4, 6, 14, 24, 38, 44, 50, 56, 60, 62, 64, 66, 67]

[50, 56, 60, 62]

House location

[22, 24, 42, 45]

[24]

Proximity to main road

[17, 47, 68]

 

Proximity to neighbouring houses/housing density

[7, 22, 29, 52, 54]

[7, 22, 29, 52]

Proximity to periphery of village/cluster

Village/cluster location

[4, 16, 42, 63]

[4, 16, 63]

Land cover type/vegetation index/ecological zone

[43, 44, 54]

[54]

Altitude/elevation

[7, 15, 17, 19, 20, 23, 29, 44, 47, 52, 59]

[7, 17, 20, 23, 29, 44, 47, 59]

Slope/aspect

[15, 17, 52]

 

Topography (valley shape, wetness index, convergence index)

[23, 52, 54]

[23]

Temperature

[43]

 

Rainfall

[15]

 

Humidity

  

Season

[4, 5, 16, 22, 42, 45, 46, 53]

[4, 16, 22, 42, 45, 46, 53]

Medical history and genetic factors

Previous malaria episodes

[22, 24, 26, 53, 63, 64]

[24, 53]

Duration of residence in malaria-endemic region

[22, 24, 44, 45]

[45]

Antibody titres, incl AMA-1, MSP-2, MSP-1_19

[43, 58]

[43, 58]

Fever history

[21, 64]

[21]

Recent malaria treatment

[25, 26, 28]

[26]

Sickle cell trait

[19, 28]

[28]

G6PD deficiency

[28]

[28]

Hookworm infection

[25]

[25]

Schistosomiasis infection

[26]

[26]

ABO blood group

[27]

[27]

Underweight/BMI

[44, 67]

[44]

Pregnancy status

[60]

 

Birth season (for infants and young children)

[19]

[19]

Plasmodium and human population factors

Household malaria cases

[5, 60, 64]

[64]

Local malaria prevalence

[6, 43, 55, 58, 62]

[6, 43, 55, 58]

Malaria prevalence in neighbouring localities

[18, 38]

[18, 38]

Household size/household crowding

[2, 6, 24, 28, 42, 47, 57, 59, 60, 62, 66, 67]

[24, 47, 62]

Village population size/density

[15, 1719]

[15, 1719]

Health seeking behaviour and access to care

Level of malaria knowledge

[19, 26]

[26]

Malaria medicine kept at home

[44]

[44]

Distance/access to health facility

[6, 25, 47, 49, 57, 61]

[6, 25, 61]

Access to malaria control program

[7, 38]

[7, 38]

Use of traditional medicine

[38]