From: Defining micro-epidemiology for malaria elimination: systematic review and meta-analysis
Variables included as risk factors for malaria in 51 studies | Studies including this variable | Significant association reported |
---|---|---|
Demographic factors | ||
Age | [4, 6, 7, 15, 16, 20–22, 24–29, 37, 42, 44, 45, 47, 49, 50, 52, 53, 55–67] | [4, 6, 7, 15, 16, 20–22, 25–27, 29, 37, 42, 45, 52, 53, 55–57, 63–67] |
Gender | [4, 6, 7, 15, 19–22, 24–26, 28, 29, 37, 42, 44, 45, 50, 52, 53, 56, 57, 59–64, 66, 67] | |
Ethnicity | ||
Income/wealth status | [2, 6, 16, 19, 22, 24–26, 28, 37, 44, 50, 56, 61–63, 66, 67] | |
Occupation | ||
Educational level | ||
Migrant status | ||
Citizenship status | [59] | [59] |
Marital status | [60] | |
Social factors | ||
Number of sleeping rooms in house | [50] | |
Number of occupants per sleeping room | ||
Household dependency ratio | [60] | |
Presence of household guests | [60] | |
Individual bed net ownership/use | [2, 4, 6, 7, 19, 20, 22, 24–26, 28, 29, 37, 44, 53, 56, 60, 61, 66–68] | |
Household bed net ownership/use | ||
Use of coils, repellent, fumigants to deter vectors | [66] | |
Recent travel away from primary residence | ||
Outdoor occupation | ||
Household member in outdoor occupation | ||
Evening outdoor activities | [26] | |
Dawn activities | [38] | |
Water contact behaviours (e.g. fishing, bathing) | [24] | |
Environmental factors | ||
Housing construction quality | ||
House roofing material | ||
House wall material | ||
House floor material | ||
Presence/type of eaves | ||
Presence/type of windows | ||
Separate kitchen | [50] | |
House size (spatial area) | [67] | |
Household water source | [62] | |
House treated with indoor residual spraying | ||
Household Solid and liquid waste disposal | ||
Household surroundings (garden, litter, tidiness) | [60] | |
Proximity to vector breeding site | ||
Proximity to water body (e.g. pond, lake, swamp, stream) | ||
Proximity to man-made water storage and management (well, drain, piped water, brickworks) | ||
Proximity to forest | ||
Local forest density | ||
Proximity to agriculture (e.g. rice irrigation, tea plantation) | ||
Vector breeding site density | [2] | |
Direction of nearest vector breeding site | [54] | [54] |
Number of households on path to breeding site | [37] | |
Adult vector density | ||
Exposure to infectious biting mosquitoes | [2] | [2] |
Domestic animals kept in/near house | ||
House location | [24] | |
Proximity to main road | ||
Proximity to neighbouring houses/housing density | ||
Proximity to periphery of village/cluster | ||
Village/cluster location | ||
Land cover type/vegetation index/ecological zone | [54] | |
Altitude/elevation | ||
Slope/aspect | ||
Topography (valley shape, wetness index, convergence index) | [23] | |
Temperature | [43] | |
Rainfall | [15] | |
Humidity | ||
Season | ||
Medical history and genetic factors | ||
Previous malaria episodes | ||
Duration of residence in malaria-endemic region | [45] | |
Antibody titres, incl AMA-1, MSP-2, MSP-1_19 | ||
Fever history | [21] | |
Recent malaria treatment | [26] | |
Sickle cell trait | [28] | |
G6PD deficiency | [28] | [28] |
Hookworm infection | [25] | [25] |
Schistosomiasis infection | [26] | [26] |
ABO blood group | [27] | [27] |
Underweight/BMI | [44] | |
Pregnancy status | [60] | |
Birth season (for infants and young children) | [19] | [19] |
Plasmodium and human population factors | ||
Household malaria cases | [64] | |
Local malaria prevalence | ||
Malaria prevalence in neighbouring localities | ||
Household size/household crowding | ||
Village population size/density | ||
Health seeking behaviour and access to care | ||
Level of malaria knowledge | [26] | |
Malaria medicine kept at home | [44] | [44] |
Distance/access to health facility | ||
Access to malaria control program | ||
Use of traditional medicine | [38] |