Fig. 1

Map of Uganda showing the study area in northern Uganda, including district and census Enumeration area (EA) boundaries. The zoom out shows all-season geographical features, including lakes, rivers or streams. The 12-pilot population control (PPC) EAs are shown according to stratification characteristics (red: near surface water and urban, yellow: far from water and urban, sky blue: near surface water and urban, and azure blue: near water and rural; see “Methods”). The map also shows the 88 EAs that were included in the previous study by Maziarz et al. [13] as gray shaded areas to show their relative geographical distribution in relation to the 12 EAs included in the current study