Table 3 Measures of association and variation between individual, household- and community-level factors and self-reported malaria in adults aged ≥ 15 years in three provinces, Indonesia

Fixed effect part

 Individual/household-level

  Gender

   Male

1.51 (1.37–1.67)

NA

NA

   Female

Ref

NA

NA

  Occupation

   Not working

Ref

Ref

Ref

   Primary industry workers (farmer, fisherman)

1.29 (1.15–1.46)

1.01 (0.91–1.12)

1.17 (1.09–1.25)

   Tertiary industry workers (services-related occupation)

1.15 (1.00–1.32)

1.12 (1.02–1.23)

1.05 (0.98–1.12)

   Other (undefined)

1.28 (1.01–1.61)

1.04 (0.87–1.25)

1.09 (0.96–1.24)

  Education

   No

Ref

Ref

Ref

   Primary

0.66 (0.52–0.83)

1.11 (0.94–1.31)

1.33 (1.20–1.47)

   Secondary

0.67 (0.53–0.83)

1.04 (0.87–1.24)

1.27 (1.15–1.40)

  Slept using ITN last night

   No

Ref

Ref

Ref

   Yes

1.11 (0.97–1.27)

0.96 (0.87–1.07)

0.88 (0.82–0.94)

  Bed net ownership

   No

Ref

Ref

Ref

   Yes

1.16 (1.02–1.30)

1.21 (1.09–1.34)

1.12 (1.02–1.23)

  House density

   Less than 8/m²

NA

Ref

Ref

   More than 8/m²

NA

1.05 (0.94–1.18)

1.00 (0.94–1.07)

  Access to nearest PHCs

   Not available

0.99 (0.84–1.19)

0.80 (0.68–0.95)

0.86 (0.78–0.95)

   Less than 30 min

Ref

Ref

Ref

   More than 30 min

1.30 (1.01–1.67)

0.75 (0.58–0.98)

0.95 (0.86–1.05)

  Household wealth index

   Poorest

Ref

Ref

Ref

   Poorer

1.05 (0.90–1.20)

0.95 (0.82–1.11)

1.03 (0.94–1.14)

   Middle

0.96 (0.80–1.14)

1.16 (0.98–1.38)

1.13 (0.99–1.30)

   Richer

0.93 (0.77–1.13)

1.38 (1.17–1.65)

1.33 (1.11–1.57)

   Richest

0.99 (0.81–1.22)

1.18 (0.97–1.42)

1.01 (0.84–1.22)

 Village-level

  Proportion of villagers with improved access to safe drinking water^a

   Low

Ref

Ref

Ref

   High

0.70 (0.60–0.83)

0.94 (0.71–1.24)

1.03 (0.84–1.26)

  Place of residence

   Rural

1.31 (1.12–1.54)

1.56 (1.17–2.07)

0.47 (0.38–0.59)

   Urban

Ref

Ref

Ref

  Proportion of villagers with had secondary education degree^b

   Low

Ref

Ref

Ref

   High

1.07 (0.89–1.27)

1.28 (1.02–1.63)

1.45 (1.23–1.72)

  Proportion of villagers with bed net^c

   Low

Ref

Ref

Ref

   High

1.16 (0.98–1.37)

0.59 (0.45–0.77)

1.26 (1.05–1.51)

  Elevation

   Lowland (< 200 m)

NA

1.12 (0.91–1.37)

0.55 (0.47–0.64)

   Midland (200–1200 m)

NA

Ref

Ref

   Highland (> 1200 m)

1.36 (0.96–1.94)

0.83 (0.67–1.02)

  Random-effect part

   Village-level variance (s.e)

0.535 (0.057)

1.345 (0.100)

2.923 (0.159)

   Household-level variance

0.863 (0.118)

0.670 (0.083)

1.203 (0.066)

   PCV^d (%)

− 10.68

− 5.68

− 12.03