Table 1 Univariate and bivariate analysis of baseline socio–demographic characteristics of participants
From: Social determinants of malaria in an endemic area of Indonesia
Research variables | n = 130,585 | 95% CI (lb–ub)a | OR; 95% CI (lb–ub)b | P-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Malaria | ||||
 No | 116,073 | 89.90 (89.15–90.6) |  |  |
 Yes | 14,512 | 10.10 (9.40–10.85) |  |  |
Independent variables | ||||
 Location | ||||
  Urban | 37,389 | 25.60 (23.07–28.31) |  |  |
  Rural | 93,196 | 74.40 (71.69–76.93) | 0.91 (0.76–1.09) | 0.305 |
Socio–demographic characteristics | ||||
 Gender | ||||
  Male | 64,796 | 51.08 (50.76–51.40) |  |  |
  Female | 65,789 | 48.92 (48.60–49.24) | 0.90 (0.85–0.94) | 0.000 |
 Age of participants in years | ||||
  0–4 | 10,109 | 8.52 (8.27–8.78) |  |  |
  5–14 | 33,378 | 26.06 (25.60–26.52) | 1.32 (1.18–1.49) | 0.000 |
  15–24 | 17,623 | 15.49 (15.09–15.90) | 1.29 (1.14–1.47) | 0.000 |
  25–34 | 19,420 | 17.09 (16.70–17.47) | 1.45 (1.29–1.64) | 0.000 |
  35–44 | 19,604 | 13.77 (13.47–14.09) | 1.58 (1.39–1.80) | 0.000 |
  45–54 | 14,170 | 8.90 (8.65–9.17) | 1.42 (1.24–1.62) | 0.000 |
  55–64 | 8312 | 4.84 (4.64–5.05) | 1.27 (1.09–1.50) | 0.003 |
  65–74 | 3927 | 2.38 (2.25–2.52) | 1.14 (0.96–1.36) | 0.147 |
  > 75 | 4042 | 2.94 (2.81–3.08) | 1.33 (1.12–1.58) | 0.001 |
 Education | ||||
  Participants considered as higher educated | 5935 | 4.193 (3.853–4.562) |  |  |
  Participants who had not completed high school education | 94,644 | 72.08 (71.33–72.83) | 0.99 (0.83–1.18) | 0.878 |
  Participants under 10 years or in preschool | 30,006 | 23.72 (22.93–24.54) | 0.84 (0.69–1.03) | 0.092 |
 Job (occupation) | ||||
  Participants who were not working | 77,533 | 60.12 (59.42–60.82) |  |  |
  Participants who were working | 53,052 | 39.88 (39.18–40.58) | 1.20 (1.12–1.27) | 0.000 |
 Use of mosquito nets | ||||
  Participants who used mosquito nets at night | 61,779 | 46.19 (44.12–48.27) |  |  |
  Participants who did not use mosquito nets at night | 68,806 | 53.81 (51.73–55.88) | 1.09 (0.97–1.23) | 0.153 |
 Use of i insecticide–treated mosquito nets | ||||
  Yes | 32,150 | 23.26 (21.73–24.85) |  |  |
  No | 27,510 | 21.49 (20.03–23.02) | 0.90 (0.78–1.04) | 0.154 |
  Participants who did not answer and others | 70,925 | 55.26 (53.18–57.31) | 1.05 (0.91–1.20) | 0.517 |
Knowledge of households about the healthcare facilities closest to their residence | ||||
 Public hospital | ||||
  Known | 64,817 | 48.97 (46.47–51.46) |  |  |
  Not known | 65,768 | 51.03 (48.54–53.53) | 0.80 (0.69–0.92) | 0.002 |
 Private hospital |  | |||
  Known | 27,836 | 22.44 (20.32–24.70) |  |  |
  Not known | 102,749 | 77.56 (75.30–79.68) | 0.65 (0.55–0.76) | 0.000 |
 Secondary or primary healthcare unit | ||||
  Known | 116,609 | 88.92 (87.65–90.08) |  |  |
  Not known | 13,976 | 11.08 (9.92–12.35) | 0.84 (0.70–1.00) | 0.051 |
 Clinics or practices of doctors | ||||
  Known | 32,954 | 25.7 (23.73–27.77) |  |  |
  Not known | 97,631 | 74.3 (72.23–76.27) | 0.84 (0.73–0.97) | 0.019 |
 Midwife practices or maternity hospitals | ||||
  Known | 18,387 | 16.59 (14.82–18.52) |  |  |
  Not known | 112,198 | 83.41 (81.48–85.18) | 1.46 (1.24–1.72) | 0.000 |
Integrated health posts (Posyandu) | ||||
  Known | 56,129 | 43.23 (41.01–45.47) |  |  |
  Not known | 74,456 | 56.77 (54.53–58.99) | 1.19 (1.06–1.35) | 0.004 |
 Village health posts (Poskesdes) | ||||
  Known | 9932 | 7.85 (6.63–9.26) |  |  |
  Not known | 120,653 | 92.15 (90.74–93.37) | 1.90 (1.46–2.47) | 0.000 |
 Village maternity clinic (Polindes) | ||||
  Known | 17,312 | 14.61 (12.95–16.43) |  |  |
  Not known | 113,273 | 85.39 (83.57–87.05) | 1.16 (0.97–1.40) | 0.109 |
Environmental sanitation | ||||
 Main water source | ||||
  Improved | 94,267 | 72.88 (70.77–74.88) |  |  |
  Unimproved | 36,318 | 27.12 (25.12–29.23) | 1.10 (0.95–1.27) | 0.226 |
 Water storage facility | ||||
  Improved | 127,808 | 97.56 (96.99–98.03) |  |  |
  Unimproved | 2777 | 2.44 (1.97–3.01) | 1.32 (0.97–1.80) | 0.076 |
 Distance from drinking water (time needed to obtain water for drinking) | ||||
  Improved | 108,053 | 82.1 (80.44–83.64) |  |  |
  Unimproved | 22,532 | 17.9 (16.36–19.56) | 0.90 (0.77–1.06) | 0.218 |
 Wastewater disposal | ||||
  Improved | 24,099 | 18.76 (17.35–20.25) |  |  |
  Unimproved | 106,486 | 81.24 (79.75–82.65) | 1.12 (0.98–1.27) | 0.089 |
 Slept using a mosquito net | ||||
  Yes | 63,333 | 47.44 (45.35–49.54) |  |  |
  No | 67,252 | 52.56 (50.46–54.65) | 1.15 (1.03–1.29) | 0.018 |
 Using mosquito coil/electric anti–mosquito mats | ||||
  Yes | 39,875 | 31.42 (29.60–33.29) |  |  |
  No | 90,710 | 68.58 (66.71–70.40) | 1.27 (1.13–1.42) | 0.000 |
 Covering ventilation holes with anti–mosquito nets | ||||
  Yes | 8582 | 6.25 (5.43–7.18) |  |  |
  No | 122,003 | 93.75 (92.82–94.57) | 0.52 (0.43–0.62) | 0.000 |
 Using mosquito repellent | ||||
  Yes | 6562 | 4.76 (4.18–5.43) |  |  |
  No | 124,023 | 95.24 (94.57–95.82) | 1.06 (0.85–1.31) | 0.616 |
 Spraying mosquito spray/insecticide | ||||
  Yes | 12,004 | 9.11 (8.10–10.22) |  |  |
  No | 118,581 | 90.90 (89.78–91.90) | 0.66 (0.55–0.79) | 0.000 |
 Taking anti–malaria drugs when staying in a malaria endemic area | ||||
  Yes | 1265 | 0.92 (0.73–1.16) |  |  |
  No | 129,320 | 99.08 (98.84–99.27) | 0.48 (0.33–0.69) | 0.000 |
 Draining the bath water reservoir once a week | ||||
  Yes | 55,702 | 41.89 (39.97–43.83) |  |  |
  No | 74,883 | 58.11 (56.17–60.03) | 0.98 (0.87–1.10) | 0.698 |
Settlement or housing condition | ||||
 Floors | ||||
  Improved | 51,788 | 39.82 (37.95–41.73) |  |  |
  Unimproved | 78,797 | 60.18 (58.27–62.05) | 1.23 (1.08–1.39) | 0.001 |
 Walls | ||||
  Improved | 112,582 | 85.23 (83.59–86.72) |  |  |
  Unimproved | 18,003 | 14.77 (13.28–16.41) | 1.32 (1.122–1.55) | 0.001 |
 Ceiling | ||||
  Improved | 2192 | 1.75 (1.45–2.10) |  |  |
  Unimproved | 128,393 | 98.26 (97.90–98.55) | 1.04 (0.72–1.50) | 0.835 |