Table 1 Characteristics of the included studies

1

Abah and Udoidang 2019 [30]

Nigeria (2018)

Cross-sectional study

15–70 years

 < 20 (92)

21–30 (136)

31–40 (149)

41–50 (119)

 ≥ 51 (104)

Male (309)

Female (291)

OPD patients (600)

308

 < 20 (52),

21–30 (106),

31–40 (67),

41–50 (42),

 ≥ 51 (41)

246

 < 20 (40),

21–30 (76),

31–40 (53),

41–50 (38),

 ≥ 51 (39)

Microscopy

36

 < 20 (8),

21–30 (16),

31–40 (9),

41–50 (2),

 ≥ 51 (1)

RDT

26

 < 20 (4),

21–30 (14),

31–40 (5),

41–50 (2),

 ≥ 51 (1)

2

Abah et al. 2019 [29]

Nigeria (2016)

Cross-sectional study

15–24 (59),

25–34 (120),

35–44 (75),

45–54 (46)

Female

Pregnant women (300)

137

15–24 (42),

25–34 (53),

35–44 (27),

45–54 (15)

110

15–24 (27),

25–34 (46),

35–44 (23),

45–54 (14)

Microscopy

17

15–24 (10),

25–34 (5),

35–44 (2),

45–54 (0)

RDT

10

15–24 (5),

25–34 (2),

35–44 (2),

45–54 (1)

3

Adeleke et al. 2013 [31]

Nigeria (2011–2012)

Cross-sectional study

15–20 (10),

21–25 (65),

26–30 (80),

31–35 (40),

 > 35 (5)

Female

Pregnant women (200)

34

15–20 (2),

21–25 (8),

26–30 (18),

31–35 (4),

 > 35 (0)

26

15–20 (1),

21–25 (5),

26–30 (16),

31v35 (4),

 > 35 (0)

Microscopy

6

15–20 (1),

21–25 (3),

26–30 (2),

31–35 (0),

 > 35 (0)

RDT

2

4

Aernan et al. 2011 [10]

Nigeria (2009)

Cross-sectional study

18–22 (87),

23–27 (97),

28–32 (96),

33–37 (28),

38–42 (24),

43–47 (4),

48–52 (4)

Male (229)

Female (108)

Blood donor (337)

Not specified

Not specified

Microscopy

Not specified

RDT

137

18–22 (40),

23–27 (44),

28–32 (22),

33–37 (16),

38–42 (11),

43–47 (2),

48–52 (2)

5

Afolabi et al. 2018 [15]

Nigeria

Cross-sectional study

1–10 (8),

11–20 (87),

21–30 (307),

31–40 (55),

41–50 (25),

 > 50 (18)

Male (167)

Female (333)

Health check-up (500)

436

385

1–10 (6),

11–20 (79),

21–30 (215),

31–40 (51),

41–50 (19),

 > 50 (15)

Microscopy

31

RDT

20

1–10 (0),

11–20 (0),

21–30 (3),

31–40 (8),

41–50 (4),

 > 50 (3)

6

Anabire et al. 2019 [23]

Ghana (2016–2017)

Cross-sectional study

Uninfected (28 ± 5.8), Pf 27.4 ± 5.7, HBV (27.2 ± 4.8), co-infections (27.1 ± 5.6)

Female

Pregnant women (2071)

469

Pf (278)

RDT, PCR

115

RDT

36

7

Andrade et al. 2011 [9]

Brazil (2006–2007)

Cross-sectional study

5–70 years

5–15 (40),

16–30 (152),

31–59 (326),

 ≥ 60 (62)

Male (267)

Female (369)

OPD patients (636)

392

335

Pv (363),

Pf(56), mixed (12)

Microscopy, PCR

29

ELISA, Real-time PCR

28

8

Braga et al. 2005 [17]

Brazil (2000)

Cross-sectional study

 < 1 (18),

2–4 (94),

5–14 (182),

15–29 (158),

30–49 (98),

 ≥ 50 (55)

Not specified

Residents (605)

342

311

 < 1 (4),

2–4 (30),

5–14 (74),

15–29 (92),

30–49 (68),

 ≥ 50 (43)

ELISA

20

 < 1 (0),

2–4 (0),

5–14 (5),

15–29 (9),

30–49 (6),

 ≥ 50 (0)

ELISA

11

 < 1 (0),

2–4 (0),

5–14 (3),

15–29 (5),

30–49 (3),

 ≥ 50 (0)

9

Braga et al. 2006 [32]

Brazil (2001–2002)

Cross-sectional study

 < 14 years

Male (410)

Female (369)

Malaria patients (545)

545

Pv (333), Pf (193)

ELISA

Not specified

ELISA

23

10

Cruz et al. 2019 [14]

Brazil (2006–2007)

Retrospective study

Not specified

Male (267)

Female (334)

Asymptomatic P. vivax(145), Symptomatic P. vivax (179), HBV co-infections (28), HBV (29), Healthy (165)

381

Pv (324)

Microscopy, PCR

29

ELISA

28

11

Dabo et al. 2015 [16]

Nigeria (2013)

Cross-sectional study

15–64

15–24 (67),

25–34 (75),

35–44 (37),

45–54 (12),

55–64 (9)

Male (90)

Female (110)

Febrile patients (200)

73

51

15–24 (24),

25–34 (13),

35–44 (6),

45–54 (6),

55–64 (2)

Microscopy

13

15–24 (4),

25–34 (4),

35–44 (4),

45–54 (0),

55–64 (1)

ELISA

9

15–24 (2),

25–34 (5),

35–44 (2),

45–54 (0),

55–64 (0)

12

Freimanis et al. 2012 [8]

Ghana

Cross-sectional study

 < 20 (9),

20–29 (44),

30–39 (36),

40–49 (13),

 ≥ 50 (14)

Male (14)

Female (103)

Transfusion recipients (117)

75

33

Pf (52), Pf/Pm (5), Pf/Po (1)

PCR

17

RDT, EIA, PCR

25

13

Gadia et al. 2017 [24]

Central African Republic (2008–2010)

Retrospective study

 < 15 (35),

16–24 (24),

25–34 (21),

 ≥ 35 (17)

Male (43)

Female (54)

Patients who tested negative for yellow fever

IgM (162), for Pf (198), for HBV (162)

40

Pf (4)

RDT

32

ELISA

4

14

Helegbe et al. 2018 [25]

Ghana (2013–2015)

Cross-sectional study

15–19 (72),

20–24 (622),

25–29 (1,143),

30–34 (874),

35–39 (354),

 ≥ 40 (62)

Female

Pregnant women (3,127)

471

339

RDT

109

RDT

23

15

Kolawole and Kana 2018 [33]

Nigeria

Cross-sectional study

18–25 years

Male (72)

Female (128)

Febrile patients (200)

111

62

RDT

38

RDT, EIA

11

16

Omalu et al. 2012 [34]

Nigeria (2011)

Cross-sectional study

Not specified

323

Pregnant women (259), nonpregnant (64)

297

267 (Pregnant 216, non-pregnant 51)

RDT

30

RDT

27 (Pregnant 21, non-pregnant 6)

17

Oyeyemi et al. 2015 [26]

Nigeria (2014)

Cross-sectional study

4–73 years

4–12 (3),

13–21 (38),

22–30 (49),

31–39 (43),

 ≥ 40 (33)

Male (66)

Female (100)

OPD patients (166)

Not specified

Pf (44)

4–12 (3),

13–21 (17),

22–30 (9),

31–39 (13),

 ≥ 40 (2)

RDT

27

4–12 (0),

13–21 (9),

22–30 (10),

31–39 (4),

 ≥ 40 (4)

RDT

11

4–12 (0),

13–21 (5),

22–30 (1),

31–39 (3),

 ≥ 40 (2)

18

Scotto and Fazio 2018 [27]

Italy

Cross-sectional study

16–40 years

Male (162)

Female (33)

African immigrants (195)

103

62

Pf (24)

PCR

26

RDT, PCR

15

19

Sharif et al. 2015 [28]

Nigeria (2013)

Cross-sectional study

15–24 (67),

25–34 (75),

35–44 (37),

45–54 (12),

55–64 (9)

Male (90)

Female (110)

Febrile patients (200)

30

15

15–24 (6),

25–34 (7),

35–44 (2),

45–54 (0),

55–64 (0)

Microscopy

9

15–24 (2),

25–34 (3),

35–44 (3),

45–54 (0),

55–64 (1)

ELISA

6

15–24 (1),

25–34 (3),

35–44 (2),

45–54 (0),

55–64 (0)

20

Thursz et al. 1995 [11]

Gambia (1988–1990)

Case–control study

Children

Not specified

Children (1,268): malaria (750), nonmalaria (518)

929

750

Severe malaria (414), mild malaria (336)

Microscopy

55

ELISA

124

21

Wokem and Amacree 2018 [35]

Nigeria (2013)

Cross-sectional study

Malaria (189): ranged 0–5, 6–11

HBV (36): ranged 24–29, 30–35

Male

Female

OPD patients (700)

238

189

Microscopy

36

ELISA

13

22

Yohanna et al. 2016 [36]

Nigeria

Cross-sectional study

 < 15 (458), > 15 (286)

Male

Female

OPD patients (750)

532

399

Microscopy

87

RDT

46