Table 6 Land-cover classes derived from VHR imagery, with suggested open alternatives, and knowledge relating to their influence on adult vector habitat suitability (from literature and experts)

Poorly built dwellings (proxy: low buildings)

Open buildings (no distinction based on building height) WSF3D

An. gambiae is highly anthropophilic and tends to feed and rest inside (e.g., on walls, under furniture, under beds etc.) [33]. Poorly-built dwellings, and dwellings with openings are associated with a higher incidence of malaria [5, 97]

Overall, western neighbourhoods present buildings of higher quality than eastern neighbourhoods, but there are fine-scale variations within this duality [98]. In deprived areas, there is not much difference between the materials of the housing units of poor and non-poor households [68]

Improved buildings (proxy: medium- and high-rise buildings)

Improved housing and mosquito proofing contribute to the decline in malaria incidence [5]

Swimming pools

n/a

Swimming pools are not cited among suitable habitats

Swimming pools are not cited among suitable habitats

Paved surface

OSM

Paved surface is not cited among suitable habitats

Paved surface is not cited among suitable habitats. The absence of vegetation implies lower vector densities [10]

Dumpsites

OSM

Dumpsites induce the proliferation of flies, mosquitoes and rodents, and city dwellers living nearby are affected by related diseases, including malaria [58]

Vector proliferation was not observed over solid waste accumulation [85]

Bare soil

Esri 2020 Land Cover, WorldCover

Bare soil is not cited among suitable habitats

Bare soil is not cited among suitable habitats. The absence of vegetation implies lower vector densities [10]

Grass

Esri 2020 Land Cover, WorldCover

While mostly endophilic, An. gambiae may find suitable shady resting places in vegetation [99]

Vegetation, and particularly scrub/shrubs and trees, have an impact on adult survival as it is likely to provide suitable resting sites [71, 100]

Trees and shrub/scrub

Esri 2020 Land Cover, WorldCover

While mostly endophilic, An. gambiae may find suitable shady resting places and nectar in trees and/or shrub. Mixing sugar meals and blood meals increases adult longevity [101]. The presence of foliage also improves the adult survival rate [33, 102]. Only female Anopheles with a high longevity can transmit P. falciparum, since the complete sporogonic cycle usually last 10–12 days in typical African climate conditions (depending on temperature and humidity) [33]

Leafy vegetation, particularly trees and scrub/shrub, is likely to provide suitable resting sites and improve adult survival [10, 34, 71]. Areas with an important presence of vegetation have the highest vector densities [10]

Water bodies

OSM, Esri 2020 Land Cover, WorldCover

Water bodies are not cited among suitable habitats

Water bodies are not cited among suitable habitats

Shadow

n/a

Exophilic (i.e., outdoor-resting) malaria vectors tend to rest in shaded areas, offering optimal resting micro-habitats where blood-fed females can hide themselves from potential predators to digest their blood-meal some distance away from human habitation [99, 103]

Blood-fed females tend to hide themselves in humid, shady spots, either indoor or outdoor [104]