Table 1 Examples of effects of land use change on potential malaria risks

 Deforestation

  Increases in anopheline larval breeding sites in response to forest clearing in the Amazon

[30]

  Initial decreases in vector densities followed by colonization by more efficient malaria vectors

[7, 35]

  Changes in vector habitat suitability linked with forest disturbance

[29, 34]

  Changes in ecological structure and biodiversity increasing or decreasing vector densities, availability of blood meals and resulting disease risks

[116,117,118]

 Agricultural expansion

  Effects of irrigation systems

[40, 119]

  Expansion of rubber and rice paddies associated with increases in anopheline densities

[28, 36]

Socio-demographic changes

 Population at risk

  Influx of susceptible populations into endemic areas in response to increased economic opportunity

[43, 120]

  Increase and movement of migrant worker populations in the Amazon and Southeast Asia

[121, 122]

  Occupational changes, such as forestry and extraction activities bringing people into vector habitats

[44, 47]

 Socioeconomic status

  Increased income following agricultural development leading to decrease in malaria risk

[52]

  Improved housing structure due to development reducing malaria risks

[51, 123]

Wildlife reservoirs

 Origin of malaria

  P. falciparum originated from non-human primates

[54]

 Spatial overlap with wildlife hosts

  Increased contact between people and non-human primates hypothesised as main driver of human infections with P. knowlesi and P. cynomolgi in Asia and P. simium and P. brasilianum in South America

[76, 85, 124, 125]

 Maintenance of malaria infections

  Human malaria species circulating in great apes and gorillas in West and Central Africa

[55, 56]