WHO. World malaria report 2019. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2019. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/world-malaria-report-2019
WHO declares public health emergency for novel coronavirus. https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/924596
WHO declares global emergency as Wuhan coronavirus spreads—The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/30/health/coronavirus-world-health-organization.html
WHO. Coronavirus disease (COVID-19). 2020. https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/situation-reports/20200608-covid-19-sitrep-140.pdf?sfvrsn=2f310900_2
Ondoa P, Kebede Y, Loembe MM, Bhiman JN, Tessema SK, Sow A, et al. COVID-19 testing in Africa: lessons learnt. Lancet Microbe. 2020;1:e103–4.
Article
CAS
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
World Population Prospects—population division—United Nations. 2020. https://population.un.org/wpp/default.aspx?aspxerrorpath=/wpp/DataQuery/. Accessed 13 March 2020.
Dowd JB, Andriano L, Brazel DM, Rotondi V, Block P, Ding X, et al. Demographic science aids in understanding the spread and fatality rates of COVID-19. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2020;117:9696–8.
Article
CAS
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Mougeni F, Mangaboula A, Lell B. The potential effect of the African population age structure on COVID-19 mortality. medRxiv. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.05.19.20106914.
Article
Google Scholar
Zhou P, Yang XL, Wang XG, Hu B, Zhang L, Zhang W, et al. A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin. Nature. 2020;579:270–3.
Article
CAS
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Rice GI, Thomas DA, Grant PJ, Turner AJ, Hooper NM. Evaluation of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), its homologue ACE2 and neprilysin in angiotensin peptide metabolism. Biochem J. 2004;383:45–51.
Article
CAS
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Zhang H, Baker A. Recombinant human ACE2: acing out angiotensin II in ARDS therapy. Crit Care. 2017;21:305.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Silva LS, Silva-Filho JL, Caruso-Neves C, Pinheiro AAS. New concepts in malaria pathogenesis: the role of the renin-angiotensin system. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2016;5:103.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
CAS
Google Scholar
Hatami N, Ahi S, Sadeghinikoo A, Foroughian M, Javdani F, Kalani N, et al. Worldwide ACE (I/D) polymorphism may affect COVID-19 recovery rate: an ecological meta-regression. Endocrine. 2020;68:479–84.
Article
CAS
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Delanghe JR, Speeckaert MM, De Buyzere ML. The host’s angiotensin-converting enzyme polymorphism may explain epidemiological findings in COVID-19 infections. Clin Chim Acta. 2020;505:192–3.
Article
CAS
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Saab YB, Gard PR, Overall ADJ. The geographic distribution of the ACE II genotype: a novel finding. Genet Res. 2007;89:259–67.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
King T, Lamb T. Interferon-γ: the Jekyll and Hyde of malaria. PLoS Pathog. 2015;11:e1005118.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
CAS
Google Scholar
Strayer D, Dickey R, Carter W. Sensitivity of SARS/MERS CoV to interferons and other drugs based on achievable serum concentrations in humans. Infect Disord Drug Targets. 2014;14:37–43.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Fauci AS, Lane HC, Redfield RR. Covid-19—navigating the uncharted. N Engl J Med. 2020;382:1268–9.
Article
CAS
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
de Mendonça VR, Barral-Netto M. Immunoregulation in human malaria: the challenge of understanding asymptomatic infection. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2015;110:945–55.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
CAS
Google Scholar
Gomes LR, Martins YC, Ferreira-Da-Cruz MF, Daniel-Ribeiro CT. Autoimmunity, phospholipid-reacting antibodies and malaria immunity. Lupus. 2014;23:1295–8.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Napoli PE, Nioi M. Global spread of coronavirus disease 2019 and malaria: an epidemiological paradox in the early stage of a pandemic. J Clin Med. 2020;9:1138.
Article
CAS
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Savarino A, Boelaert JR, Cassone A, Majori G, Cauda R. Effects of chloroquine on viral infections: an old drug against today’s diseases? Lancet Infect Dis. 2003;3:722–7.
Article
CAS
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Vincent MJ, Bergeron E, Benjannet S, Erickson BR, Rollin PE, Ksiazek TG, et al. Chloroquine is a potent inhibitor of SARS coronavirus infection and spread. Virol J. 2005;2:69.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
CAS
Google Scholar
Dyall J, Gross R, Kindrachuk J, Johnson RF, Olinger GG, Hensley LE, et al. Middle east respiratory syndrome and severe acute respiratory syndrome: current therapeutic options and potential targets for novel therapies. Drugs. 2017;77:1935–66.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Yao X, Ye F, Zhang M, Cui C, Huang B, Niu P, et al. In vitro antiviral activity and projection of optimized dosing design of hydroxychloroquine for the treatment of severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71:732–9.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Mehra MR, Desai SS, Ruschitzka F, Patel AN. Hydroxychloroquine or chloroquine with or without a macrolide for treatment of COVID-19: a multinational registry analysis. Lancet. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31180-6.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
The Lancet Editors. Expression of concern: hydroxychloroquine or chloroquine with or without a macrolide for treatment of COVID-19: a multinational registry analysis. Lancet. 2020;395:102.
Article
Google Scholar
Mehra MR, Ruschitzka F, Patel AN. Retraction—hydroxychloroquine or chloroquine with or without a macrolide for treatment of COVID-19: a multinational registry analysis. Lancet. 2020;395:1820.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Ocan M, Akena D, Nsobya S, Kamya MR, Senono R, Kinengyere AA, et al. Persistence of chloroquine resistance alleles in malaria endemic countries: a systematic review of burden and risk factors. Malar J. 2019;18:76.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Zhou D, Dai S-M, Tong Q. COVID-19: a recommendation to examine the effect of hydroxychloroquine in preventing infection and progression. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2020;75:1667–70.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Amaravadi R. The PATCH Trial (Prevention and treatment of COVID-19 with hydroxychloroquine). ClinicalTrials.gov. 2020. https://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04329923
Lother SA, Abassi M, Agostinis A, Bangdiwala AS, Cheng MP, Drobot G, et al. Post-exposure prophylaxis or pre-emptive therapy for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2): study protocol for a pragmatic randomized-controlled trial. Can J Anesth. 2020;67:1201–11.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Boulware DR, Pullen MF, Bangdiwala AS, Pastick KA, Lofgren SM, Okafor EC, et al. A randomized trial of hydroxychloroquine as postexposure prophylaxis for Covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2020;383:517–25.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
NIAID. Evaluating the efficacy of hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin to prevent hospitalization or death in persons with COVID-19. ClinicalTrials.gov. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04358068
No clinical benefit from use of hydroxychloroquine in hospitalised patients with COVID-19. 2020. https://www.recoverytrial.net/files/hcq-recovery-statement-050620-final-002.pdf
Lotteau V, Teyton L, Peleraux A, Nilsson T, Karlsson L, Schmid SL, et al. Intracellular transport of class II MHC molecules directed by invariant chain. Nature. 1990;348:600–5.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Jang C-H, Choi J-H, Jue D-M. Chloroquine inhibits production of TNF-a, IL-1b and IL-6 from lipopolysaccharide-stimulated human monocytes/macrophages by different modes. Rheumatology. 2006;45:703–10.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Kužnik A, Benčina M, Švajger U, Jeras M, Rozman B, Jerala R. Mechanism of endosomal TLR inhibition by antimalarial drugs and imidazoquinolines. J Immunol. 2011;186:4794–804.
Article
PubMed
CAS
Google Scholar
Ewald SE, Lee BL, Lau L, Wickliffe KE, Shi GP, Chapman HA, et al. The ectodomain of Toll-like receptor 9 is cleaved to generate a functional receptor. Nature. 2008;456:658–62.
Article
CAS
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Millet JK, Whittaker GR. Host cell proteases: critical determinants of coronavirus tropism and pathogenesis. Virus Res. 2015;202:120–34.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Schrezenmeier E, Dörner T. Mechanisms of action of hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine: implications for rheumatology. Nat Rev Rheumatol. 2020;16:155–66.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Al-Bari MAA. Targeting endosomal acidification by chloroquine analogs as a promising strategy for the treatment of emerging viral diseases. Pharmacol Res Perspect. 2017;5:e00293.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
CAS
Google Scholar
Guan W, Ni Z, Hu Y, Liang W, Ou C, He J, et al. Clinical characteristics of coronavirus disease 2019 in China. N Engl J Med. 2020;382:1708–20.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
O’Brien D, Tobin S, Brown GV, Torresi J. Fever in returned travelers: review of hospital admissions for a 3-year period. Clin Infect Dis. 2001;33:603–9.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Gostic KM, Gomez ACR, Mummah RO, Kucharski AJ, Lloyd-Smith JO. Estimated effectiveness of symptom and risk screening to prevent the spread of COVID-19. Elife. 2020;9:e55570.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, Ren L, Zhao J, Hu Y, et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan. China Lancet. 2020;395:497–506.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Ye Q, Wang B, Mao J. The pathogenesis and treatment of the ‘Cytokine Storm’ in COVID-19. J Infect. 2020;80:607–13.
Article
CAS
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Liao Y-C, Liang W-G, Chen F-W, Hsu J-H, Yang J-J, Chang M-S. IL-19 induces production of IL-6 and TNF-α and results in cell apoptosis through TNF-α. J Immunol. 2002;169:4288–97.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Wu Z, McGoogan JM. Characteristics of and important lessons from the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in China: summary of a report of 72314 cases from the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention. JAMA. 2020;323:1239–42.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Bucşan AN, Williamson KC. Setting the stage: the initial immune response to blood-stage parasites. Virulence. 2020;11:88–103.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
CAS
Google Scholar
Othoro C, Lal AA, Nahlen B, Koech D, Orago ASS, Udhayakumar V. A low interleukin-10 tumor necrosis factor-α ratio is associated with malaria anemia in children residing in a holoendemic malaria region in Western Kenya. J Infect Dis. 1999;179:279–82.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Akanmori BD, Kurtzhals JA, Goka BQ, Adabayeri V, Ofori MF, Nkrumah FK, et al. Distinct patterns of cytokine regulation in discrete clinical forms of Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Eur Cytokine Netw. 2000;11:113–8.
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Jin Y, Yang H, Ji W, Wu W, Chen S, Zhang W, et al. Virology, epidemiology, pathogenesis, and control of COVID-19. Viruses. 2020;12:372.
Article
CAS
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Mazhar F, Haider N. Respiratory manifestation of malaria: an update. Int J Med Res Health Sci. 2016;5:59–65.
Google Scholar
Visseren FL, Bouwman JJ, Bouter KP, Diepersloot RJ, de Groot PH, Erkelens DW. Procoagulant activity of endothelial cells after infection with respiratory viruses. Thromb Haemost. 2000;84:319–24.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Giannis D, Ziogas IA, Gianni P. Coagulation disorders in coronavirus infected patients: COVID-19, SARS-CoV-1, MERS-CoV and lessons from the past. J Clin Virol. 2020;127:104362.
Article
CAS
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Klok FA, Kruip MJHA, van der Meer NJM, Arbous MS, Gommers DAMPJ, Kant KM, et al. Incidence of thrombotic complications in critically ill ICU patients with COVID-19. Thromb Res. 2020;191:145–7.
Article
CAS
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Oxley TJ, Mocco J, Majidi S, Kellner CP, Shoirah H, Singh IP, et al. Large-vessel stroke as a presenting feature of Covid-19 in the young. N Engl J Med. 2020;382:e60.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Tang N, Li D, Wang X, Sun Z. Abnormal coagulation parameters are associated with poor prognosis in patients with novel coronavirus pneumonia. J Thromb Haemost. 2020;18:844–7.
Article
CAS
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Fox SE, Akmatbekov A, Harbert JL, Li G, Quincy Brown J, Vander Heide RS. Pulmonary and cardiac pathology in African American patients with COVID-19: an autopsy series from New Orleans. Lancet Respir Med. 2020;8:681–6.
Article
CAS
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Lippi G, Plebani M, Henry BM. Thrombocytopenia is associated with severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) infections: a meta-analysis. Clin Chim Acta. 2020;506:145–8.
Article
CAS
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Angchaisuksiri P. Coagulopathy in malaria. Thromb Res. 2014;133:5–9.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Krishnan A, Karnad DR, Limaye U, Siddharth W. Cerebral venous and dural sinus thrombosis in severe falciparum malaria. J Infect. 2004;48:86–90.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Schwartz J, Musoke C, Ssendikadiwa C, Babua C. Severe falciparum malaria associated with massive pulmonary embolism. Ann Afr Med. 2014;13:47.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Srichaikul T. Hemostatic alterations in malaria. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 1993;24:86–91.
PubMed
Google Scholar
Plucinski M, Butts JK, Halsey ES, Mcelroy PD, Aboulhab J, Plucinski MM, et al. Effect of the Ebola-virus-disease epidemic on malaria case management in Guinea, 2014: a cross-sectional survey of health facilities. Lancet Infect Dis. 2015;15:1017–40.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
WHO. Responding to community spread of COVID-19. Interim Guide 7 March. 2020;1–6. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/responding-to-community-spread-of-covid-19
Tailoring malaria interventions in the COVID-19 response. https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/tailoring-malaria-interventions-in-the-covid-19-response